A Time to Wean

In the United States, women receive conflicting advice about when to wean their children completely from breastfeeding. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends one year, while WHO and UNICEF recommend at least two years. Many physicians consider six months to be "extended" breastfeeding, and some health professionals question the motives of women who nurse for more than a year. In turn, women may hide the fact that they are still nursing an older child from disapproving health care professionals or family members. From anthropological research, we know that in many non-Western cultures children are routinely nursed for three to four years. Are they eccentric, or are we? Can we look to other animals to determine what the natural age at weaning would be in modern humans if it was not modified by cultural beliefs?

Like all mammals, humans have mammary glands that function to nurture their offspring. Within the class Mammalia, humans are members of the order Primates, and have the basic primate pattern of breastfeeding and weaning activity that has been molded by more than 65 million years of natural selection to ensure the best possible survival rate of primate offspring. This basic pattern is assumed to be primarily genetically based. In addition, a number of life-history variables are also associated with age at weaning in the non-human primates. What do these variables suggest about the "natural" age of weaning in humans?

Weaning according to tripling or quadrupling of birth weight

The idea that mammals wean their offspring when they have tripled their birth weight is widely reported in the breastfeeding literature (Lawrence 1989). This rule of thumb holds true for small-bodied mammals, but not for larger ones. Recent research has looked at age at weaning and at growth among large mammals, including primates. The research shows that weaning occurs some months after quadrupling of the birth weight, rather than tripling (Lee, Majluf and Gordon 1991). When do U.S. infants typically quadruple their birth weight? For males, the average age is around 27 months, and for females, around 30 months.

Weaning according to attainment of one-third adult weight

Other studies suggest that primates are like other mammals in weaning each offspring when they reach about one-third their adult weight (Charnov and Berrigan 1993). Humans come in different sizes, but 4 to 7 years of nursing would be the weaning age for humans using this method of comparison, with boys generally being nursed longer than girls, and large-bodied populations nursing longer than small-bodied groups.

Weaning according to adult body size

Harvey and Clutton-Brock (1985) published a study of life-history variables in primates, including a formula for calculating age at weaning based on adult female body weight. The equation predicts an age at weaning for humans at between 2.8 and 3.7 years, depending on average adult female body weight, with larger-bodied populations nursing the longest.

Weaning according to gestation length

It is often reported in the literature that, among mammals in general, weaning age is approximately the same as the length of gestation (Lawrence 1989). By this criterion, weaning in humans might be expected to take place after only nine months of breastfeeding. However, this one-to-one relationship is greatly affected by the adult size of the animal. For many small-bodied primates, the duration of breastfeeding is shorter than the length of gestation. Among large-bodied primate species, the duration of breastfeeding far exceeds the average length of gestation. For humankind's closest relatives, the chimpanzee and the gorilla, the duration of breastfeeding is more than six times the length of gestation. Humans are among the largest of the primates, and share more than 98 percent of their genetic material with chimpanzees and gorillas. Based on these comparisons, an estimated natural age at weaning for humans would be a minimum of six times gestational length, or 4.5 years.

Weaning according to dental eruption

According to the research of Smith (1991), many primates wean their offspring when they are erupting their first permanent molars. First permanent molar eruption occurs around 5.5 to 6.0 years in modern humans. It is interesting to note that achievement of adult immune competence in humans also occurs at approximately six years of age, suggesting that throughout our recent evolutionary past, the active immunities provided by breast milk were normally available to the child until about this age (Fredrickson).

Our evolutionary past has produced an organism that relies on breastfeeding to provide the context for physical, cognitive, and emotional development. The human primate data suggest that human children are designed to receive all of the benefits of breast milk and breastfeeding for an absolute minimum of two and a half years, and an apparent upper limit of around seven years. Natural selection has favored those infants with a strong, genetically coded blueprint that programs them to expect nursing to continue for a number of years after birth and results in the urge to suckle remaining strong for this entire period. Many societies today are able to meet a child's nutritional needs with modified adult foods after the age of three or four years. Western, industrialized societies can compensate for some (but not all) of the immunological benefits of breastfeeding with antibiotics, vaccines and improved sanitation. But the physical, cognitive, and emotional needs of the young child persist. Health care professionals, parents, and the general public should be made aware that somewhere between three and seven years may be a reasonable and appropriate age of weaning for humans, however uncommon it may be in the United States to nurse an infant through toddlerhood and beyond.

Introducing Baby Food - When Should You Do It?

During the first year of parenthood, your baby food has been relatively simplistic: you either breastfed or you fed your baby with bottle formula. However, now that your bouncing baby has reached the teething stage, you're starting to feel as though it might be time to slowly introduce solid foods. But when is the right time to start introducing semi-solid and solid baby food into your darling's diet? Is there a recommended period of time, or should the decision be made based upon your own parental instincts?

There's no end to the conflicting answers awaiting inquiring parents regarding the issue of introducing baby food. It seems as though every nutritional and medical expert has a differing opinion on the matter; yet there are some underlying congruities that can help you to determine when your baby is ready for semi-solid and solid baby food.

While many health experts claim that you can start your baby on solid foods as soon as four months old, the World Health Organization (WHO), the health committee of the United Nations, recommends that infants shouldn't start eating solid foods until they're six months of age. Other influential health organizations, such as UNICEF and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) have similar recommendations as WHO regarding the issue of the right time to introduce baby food. 

So why have doctors and health experts decided on the sixth month marker as the appropriate time to start introducing solid baby food? Simple: once your baby reaches the six month milestone, he will have the necessary physical developments needed to swallow and digest solid food. Before six months, your baby will have a very sensitive gag reflex that can be triggered by solid foods in addition to an overwhelming instinct to continue tongue-thrusting, which makes solid foods extremely difficult to consume. Add to the fact that health experts have only recently unearthed research to support the theory that early feeding can increase the risk of obesity, and you have some very powerful reasons to withhold solid foods until your baby reaches six months in age.

Of course, it's important for each and every parent to make the decision to introduce solid foods based on your baby's needs. To determine if your baby is ready for solid baby food, answer the following questions; if you've answer "yes" to most of the questions, your baby is ready to move on to more solid foods:

· Has your baby become more curious about your own foods? For example, does your baby try to grab food off of your own plate or watch you eagerly as you eat your own dinner? Babies use instinct to move from breast milk to solid food, so watch your baby's behavior carefully for these signs.

 
· Has your baby become dissatisfied with breast milk or infant formula? Does your baby become hungrier more quickly than usual? If so, your baby's precious tummy needs more substantial food in order to satiate her appetite!
 
· Does your baby exert more control over his body? For example, can your baby easily hold up his head or turn it away? This is crucial when deciding if your baby is ready for solid baby food, since better head control will help him swallow food easily and refuse food once he becomes too full.
 
· Does your baby wake up frequently throughout the night, whereas before she would sleep soundly? This can be a good indication that she's ready for more solid foods, since breast milk or baby formula isn't keeping her satiated during the night. Be careful, however, as this can also be symptomatic of your baby's uncomfortable teething process.

 
So if your bundle of joy is ready for solid baby food, what's an appropriate food that's not only easy to eat, but will be easy on his delicate digestive system as well?
 
Nutritional and medical researchers recommend that parents start out with single grain carbohydrates, such as baby rice or baby oatmeal. These semi-solid foods won't pose a challenge for babies to swallow, but will still satiate a powerful appetite. Puree fruits and vegetables also can be introduced at this time, since it's a great way to ensure that your baby continues getting the vitamins, minerals and other nutrients that she needs to grow up healthy and strong. 
 
If your baby has trouble with the baby rice or oatmeal, try mixing a tablespoon with breast milk or formula to make a more liquid consistency. Don't forget to use a rubber-encased spoon, as common metal cutlery can irritate your baby's sensitive gums - and since she's likely going through the teething process, this can be quite painful for your darling angel!
 
Remember, the ultimate decision to move onto solid baby food should be made by you and your baby - so if he's ready for it, then so are you!

 

I am a retired grandmother who enjoys babysitting all six of my priceless grandchildren. In my spare time I stay active, travel, and write informative articles about the importance of a safe crib mattress and other topics that matter to me.

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